Scientific Name: Flaxseed
Other Names: Flaxseed oil, Graine de lin, Leinsamen, Linseed, Linseed oil, Lint bells, Linum, Winterlein

Who is this for?

Uses

Note: Only flax products that are packaged specifically for food or medical use should be taken by mouth. Flaxseed sold for planting and flaxseed oil sold for painting or other purposes are not suitable for human consumption. Products labeled as "linseed oil" should never be taken by mouth.

Today, one major use of flaxseed is as a laxative. Because flaxseeds are coated with mucilage, a natural gummy substance that does not dissolve in water, they form a thick, gooey mass when exposed to fluids. The body does not digest mucilage, so when mucilage-containing substances are taken by mouth, the resulting large soft mass moves through the intestines and also triggers intestinal muscle contractions. In addition, the mucilage forms a slick coating on the walls of the intestines. All of these effects help to prevent or relieve constipation. Flaxseed oil may also be taken by mouth for a mild laxative effect. Both flaxseeds and flaxseed oil may also be used to treat other gastrointestinal (GI) complaints such as irritable bowel syndrome.

Historically, however, flaxseed has been used to treat a number of conditions including heart disease. In the last 20 years or so, interest in the possible effects of flaxseed products on the heart has been renewed. Research is being done to test the effectiveness of flaxseed and flaxseed oil in reducing high blood pressure. In a 12-week long study of 59 men with high blood pressure, those taking 8 grams of flaxseed oil per day saw significant reductions in blood pressure compared to men who took safflower oil. Separate animal studies have also showed a small decrease in blood pressure among animals given flaxseed.

Generally, in animal studies and small human studies, flaxseed has also produced at least modest reductions in total cholesterol, triglycerides, and/or low-density lipoproteins (LDL), the "bad" types of cholesterol. In some studies, though, decreases were not significant or blood levels of high-density lipoproteins (HDL), the "good" type of cholesterol also decreased. Low HDL levels may increase the risk of heart disease. Additionally, any cholesterol-lowering effect may be temporary as seen in a 10-week study of 62 adults. Halfway through the study, those taking 40 grams per day of flaxseed had slightly lower cholesterol than those taking a similar dose of wheat bran. By the end of the study, however, no differences were noted between the two groups. However, these results have not been confirmed in larger human studies.

Flaxseed was thought to possess some anti-estrogenic effects, which have been studied for possible protection against certain types of breast cancer and prostate cancer. However, when these effects were tested in several laboratory studies and a few human studies, the results were inconclusive. In some of the studies, flaxseed products appeared to prevent or delay cancer, while in other research the number of cancer cases, the progression of cancer, or both increased, suggesting that flaxseed may actually have estrogen-like effects. Other herbal products with estrogenic properties have been used by men to lessen benign prostate enlargement and by women to relieve menstrual cramps and symptoms of menopause. Very early evidence suggests that flaxseed may have similar effects. For example, in one study of 30 postmenopausal women who took 40 grams of crushed flaxseeds per day for 6 weeks, the number and severity of hot flashes were reported to decrease by about 50%. Estrogenic herbals may also help to prevent or treat osteoporosis for both men and women.

At least one study of laboratory animals has shown that flaxseed in the diet may reduce the amount of chromosome damage that may be caused by cancer, but not enough is known about the cause of chromosome damage or its prevention to recommend flaxseed for cancer prevention. Additional studies are underway to assess further the possible effects of flaxseed and flaxseed oil on chromosome damage.

More recently, flaxseed has been studied for its potential to prevent kidney damage in individuals who have an autoimmune condition known as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Some evidence from animal studies and human case reports supports the use for SLE, but more studies are needed before flaxseed can be recommended for this use.

Flaxseed oil can be applied topically to soften dry skin. Also for topical use, a poultice can be made by mixing whole or crushed flaxseed with about three times as much hot water as the amount of flaxseed and then letting the mixture stand until it makes a thick gel. A soft cloth is then covered with the gel, possibly heated, and applied to an aching or injured area of skin surface.

In studies of laboratory animals, flaxseed showed both estrogen-like and anti-estrogenic effects. Although one small pilot study of breast-feeding women showed no adverse effects in infants whose breast-feeding mothers took flaxseed oil, pregnant and breast-feeding women are not advised to use flaxseed or flaxseed oil. Potentially, the unpredictable estrogenic or anti-estrogenic effects may affect developing babies before and immediately after birth. In addition, the possible effects of flaxseed or flaxseed oil for young children have not been studied, so their use is not recommended for children under 12 years of age.

Women with hormone-dependent conditions such as endometriosis, uterine fibroids, or cancers of the breast, ovaries, or uterus should not take flaxseed products due to their possible estrogenic effects. Men with prostate cancer should also avoid taking flaxseed products.

Flaxseed can block the esophagus or parts of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Therefore individuals who have had esophageal or intestinal blockages should not use flaxseed.

Precautions

Flaxseed must be taken with adequate quantities of water (about 8 ounces of water or other liquid for each tablespoon of flaxseed) to prevent GI blockages.

What side effects should I watch for?

Major Side Effects

If flaxseed or flaxseed oil is used in high doses or for prolonged periods of time, reduced potassium levels in the body may result. Low potassium levels can result in muscle weakness and potentially dangerous changes in heart rhythm.

Less Severe Side Effects

Side effects most associated with taking flaxseed are gastrointestinal (GI) complaints such as bloating, diarrhea, gas, nausea, and stomach pain. Taking flaxseed oil by mouth may result in oily leakage from the GI tract.

Allergic reactions, such as itching, rashes, or swelling, have been reported by individuals who took flaxseed or flaxseed oil and by individuals who work in growing or processing flax plants.

What interactions should I watch for?

When mixed with water or other fluids, flaxseed forms a sticky, slippery gel that can coat the inside of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. In theory, taking flaxseed by mouth could block the absorption of other drugs that are taken at the same time. Individuals who take flaxseed should take other drugs, dietary supplements, or herbal products more than one hour before or at least 2 hours after taking the flaxseed.

Prescription Drugs

In case studies, flaxseed oil has been reported to increase the time blood needs to clot. When it is taken with antiplatelet or anticoagulant drugs, the effect of the drug may be increased, possibly resulting in uncontrolled bleeding.

• Antiplatelets include clopidogrel and Ticlid
• Anticoagulants include heparin and warfarin

Non-prescription Drugs

Flaxseed and flaxseed oil may decrease the ability of blood to clot after an injury. Aspirin can also delay clotting, so flax products should not be taken at the same time as aspirin.

Herbal Products

Theoretically, if flaxseed oil is used with other supplements that affect blood clotting, the risk of excessive bleeding may increase slightly. Some of the most common herbal products that might inhibit blood clotting are:

• Danshen
• Devil's Claw
• Eeuthero
• Garlic
• Ginger (in large amounts)
• Ginkgo
• Horse Chestnut
• Panax Ginseng
• Papain
• Red Clover
• Saw Palmetto

Some interactions between herbal products and medications can be more severe than others. The best way for you to avoid harmful interactions is to tell your doctor and/or pharmacist what medications you are currently taking, including any over-the-counter products, vitamins, and herbals. For specific information on how flaxseed and flaxseed oil interact with drugs, other herbals, and foods and the severity of those interactions, please use our Drug Interactions Checker to check for possible interactions.

Should I take it?

Flax has been used in various ways by humans for at least 10,000 years. Flax is believed to be one of the first plants that early humans learned to grow for purposes other than food. Linen cloth made from flax fibers was used to wrap Egyptian mummies and flax is mentioned prominently in the Bible as a source of both food and cloth. Thought to have originated in southern Europe, flax was once cultivated extensively in most parts of the world that have cool, damp climates. Presently, it is grown as a large-scale crop only in eastern Europe.

Flax plants are annuals with small leaves surrounding strong stems. During most of the summer, light blue or lavender-colored flowers bloom at the ends of the stems, which can reach up to 3 feet in height. At the end of the growing season, the seeds are harvested for planting the following year and the plants are left to dry in the fields. The dried flax stems are softened in water and then pounded to separate the fibers, which can be woven into linen cloth. In the past, flax fibers were used to make paper and they are still used to strengthen some paper money. Linen is also used as artists' canvas.

Flaxseeds provided early humans with a reliable food source. High in protein, they can be dried and saved for long periods, and they are easily transported. The oil that can be extracted from flaxseeds contains a high percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs)--particularly alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), which is essential for maintaining cell membranes. Either the seed or the oil can be added to drinks or soft foods. Flaxseed can also be baked into breads, cookies, or muffins. Flaxseed oil can be used in salad dressing, but it should not be used in cooking because heat destroys some of its active ingredients.

In addition to their medical uses and nutritional value, flaxseeds also produce oils for industry. They are used in concrete, insulation, soap, and waterproofing material. Known by the name linseed oil, flaxseed oil is also an essential ingredient in oil paints for artistic and commercial uses. Even flaxseed residue left after the oil has been removed may be used as an animal feed, which is commonly called flax cakes.

Dosage and Administration

Whole, crushed, or ground flaxseeds can be added to beverages or bakery. Because they cause liquids to become thick and gooey, however, many individuals do not like to use them in drinks. Also available are flaxseed powder-filled capsules. Flaxseed oil comes in oil-filled capsules or as a liquid, which both must be protected from heat and light.

In general, laxatives should not be taken for longer than one week at a time. For use as a laxative, a common dose of whole or crushed flaxseed is one tablespoon (approximately 15 grams) two times or three times a day. Because flaxseed swells when it gets wet, taking it with enough water--approximately 8 ounces of water for each tablespoonful of flaxseed--is very important to prevent blockage in the esophagus, stomach, or intestines.

Alternatively, one tablespoon to three tablespoons of flaxseed oil can be used per day as a laxative. It should be used only long enough to produce a soft stool.

For high cholesterol, a daily dose of 40 grams to 50 grams (approximately two tablespoons to three tablespoons) of flaxseed or one tablespoon to three tablespoons of flaxseed oil is recommended.

Summary

When taken by mouth, flaxseed and flaxseed oil are both effective laxatives.They may also help to lower blood pressure and cholesterol levels. Topically, flaxseed oil softens the skin and a poultice of flaxseeds soothes irritated skin.

Risks

Flaxseed's possible estrogenic or anti-estrogenic effects make it unsuitable for pregnant and breast-feeding women, small children, and individuals with hormone-dependent conditions such as endometriosis and cancers of the breast, ovaries, prostate, or uterus. Individuals who have or who ever have had esophageal or intestinal blockages should avoid taking flaxseed due to the possibility that another blockage may occur.

Side Effects

Possibly, high or prolonged use of flaxseed or flaxseed oil may lead to possibly dangerously low levels of potassium in the body. Other side effects that have been associated with using flaxseed or flaxseed oil by mouth include relatively minor GI complaints.

Interactions

Flaxseed products may increase the time that blood takes to clot, therefore they may increase the effects of drugs or herbal products that also delay blood clotting. Potentially, flaxseed taken by mouth may block the effectiveness of other medications that are also taken by mouth. Flaxseed should be taken at least 2 hours before or 2 hours after other drugs, herbals, or supplements are taken.

Last Revised July 18, 2008

References

Allman MA, Pena MM, Pang D. Supplementation with flaxseed oil versus sunflower seed oil in healthy young men consuming a low fat diet: effects on platelet composition and function. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1995;49(3):169-178.

Anon: Flax. In: DerMarderosian A, Beutler JA, eds. Facts and Comparisons: The Review of Natural Products. St. Louis, MO, Facts and Comparisons. August 2002.

Barre DE, Mizier-Barre KA, Griscti O, Hafez K. High dose flaxseed oil supplementation may affect fasting blood serum glucose management in human type 2 diabetics. Journal of Oleo Science. 2008;57(5):269-273.

Basch E, Bent S, Collins J, et al; Natural Standard Resource Collaboration. Flax and flaxseed oil (Linum usitatissimum): a review by the Natural Standard Research Collaboration. Journal of the Society of Integrated Oncology. 2007;5(3):92-105.

Berry EM, Hirsch J. Does dietary linolenic acid influence blood pressure? American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1986;44(3):336-340.

Bhathena SJ, Ali AA, Haudenschild C, et al. Dietary flaxseed meal is more protective than soy protein concentrate against hypertriglyceridemia and steatosis of the liver in an animal model of obesity. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2003;22(2):157-164.

Bhatia AL, Sharma A, Patni S, Sharma AL. Prophylactic effect of flaxseed oil against radiation-induced hepatotoxicity in mice. Phytotherapy Research. Epublished ahead of print. May 8, 2007.

Bhatia AL, Sharma A, Patni S, Sharma AL. Prophylactic effect of flaxseed oil against radiation-induced hepatotoxicity in mice. Phytotherapy Research. 2007;21(9):852-859.

Bierenbaum ML, Reichstein R, Watkins TR. Reducing atherogenic risk in hyperlipemic humans with flaxseed supplementation: a preliminary report. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 1993;12(5):501-504.

Bloedon LT, Balikai S, Chittams J, et al. Flaxseed and cardiovascular risk factors: results from a double blind, randomized, controlled clinical trial. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2008;27(1):65-74.

Bloedon LT, Szapary PO. Flaxseed and cardiovascular risk. Nutrition Review. 2004;62(1):18-27.

Brown DJ. Low-fat diet, supplemented with flaxseed, may influence prostate cancer progression. HerbalGram. 2002;54:24-26.

Brooks JD, Ward WE, Lewis JE, et al. Supplementation with flaxseed alters estrogen metabolism in postmenopausal women to a greater extent than does supplementation with an equal amount of soy. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2004;79(2):318-325.

Chen J, Power KA, Mann J, Cheng A, Thompson LU. Dietary flaxseed interaction with tamoxifen induced tumor regression in athymic mice with MCF-7 xenografts by downregulating the expression of estrogen related gene products and signal transduction pathways. Nutrition in Cancer. 2007;58(2):162-170.

Chen J, Power KA, Mann J, Cheng A, Thompson LU. Flaxseed alone or in combination with tamoxifen inhibits mcf-7 breast tumor growth in ovariectomized athymic mice with high circulating levels of estrogen. Experimental Biology and Medicine (Maywood). 2007;232(8):1071-1080.

Chen J, Thompson LU. Lignans and tamoxifen, alone or in combination, reduce human breast cancer cell adhesion, invasion and migration in vitro. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment. 2003;80(2):163-170.

Cintra DE, Costa AV, Peluzio Mdo C, Matta SL, Silva MT, Costa NM. Lipid profile of rats fed high-fat diets based on flaxseed, peanut, trout, or chicken skin. Nutrition. 2006;22(2):197-205.

Clark WF, Kortas C, Heidenheim P, et al. Flaxseed in lupus nephritis: a two-year nonplacebo-controlled crossover study. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2001;20(2):143-148.

Cohen SL, Ward WE. Flaxseed oil and bone development in growing male and female mice. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health A. 2005;68(21):1861-1870.

Comhaire FH, Mahmoud A. The role of food supplements in the treatment of the infertile man. Reproductive Biomedicine Online. 2003;7(4):385-391.

Dabrosin C, Chen J, Wang L, Thompson LU. Flaxseed inhibits metastasis and decreases extracellular vascular endothelial growth factor in human breast cancer xenografts. Cancer Letter. 2002;185(1):31-37.

Demark-Wahnefried W, Robertson CN, Walther PJ, Polascik TJ, Paulson DF, Vollmer RT. Pilot study to explore effects of low-fat, flaxseed-supplemented diet on proliferation of benign prostatic epithelium and prostate-specific antigen. Urology. 2004;63(5):900-904.

Dodin S, Cunnane SC, Masse B, et al. Flaxseed on cardiovascular disease markers in healthy menopausal women: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Nutrition. 2008;24(1):23-30.

Dupasquier CM, Weber AM, Ander BP, et al. The effects of dietary flaxseed on vascular contractile function and atherosclerosis during prolonged hypercholesterolemia in rabbits. American Journal of Physiology and Heart and Circulation Physiology. 2007;293(4):H2394-H2402.

Francois CA, Connor SL, Bolewicz LC, Connor WE. Supplementing lactating women with flaxseed oil does not increase docosahexaenoic acid in their milk. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2003;77(1):226-233.

Frische EJ, Hutchins AM, Martini MC, Thomas W, Slavin JL. Effect of flaxseed and wheat bran on serum hormones and lignan excretion in premenopausal women. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2003;22(6):550-554.

Fritsche KL, Johnston PV. Effect of dietary alpha-linolenic acid on growth, metastasis, fatty acid profile and prostaglandin production of two murine mammary adenocarcinomas. Journal of Nutrition. 1990;120(12):1601-1609.

Fukumitsu S, Aida K, Ueno N, Ozawa S, Takahashi Y, Kobori M. Flaxseed lignan attenuates high-fat diet-induced fat accumulation and induces adiponectin expression in mice. British Journal of Nutrition. Epublished ahead of print. February 6, 2008.

Haggans CJ, Travelli EJ, Thomas W, Martini MC, Slavin JL. The Effect of Flaxseed and Wheat Bran Consumption on Urinary Estrogen Metabolites in Premenopausal Women. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 2000;9:719-725.

Haggerty WJ. Flax: ancient and modern medicine. HerbalGram. 1999;45:51-57.

Hallund J, Ravn-Haren G, Bugel S, Tholstrup T, Tetens I. A lignan complex isolated from flaxseed does not affect plasma lipid concentrations or antioxidant capacity in healthy postmenopausal women. Journal of Nutrition. 2006;136(1):112-116.

Hallund J, Tetens I, Bugel S, Tholstrup T, Bruun JM. The effect of a lignan complex isolated from flaxseed on inflammation markers in healthy postmenopausal women. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases. Epublished ahead of print. May 22, 2008.

Hanf V, Gonder U. Nutrition and primary prevention of breast cancer: foods, nutrients and breast cancer risk. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Biology. 2005;123(2):139-149.

Harper CR, Edwards MJ, DeFilipis AP, Jacobson TA. Flaxseed oil increases the plasma concentrations of cardioprotective (n-3) fatty acids in humans. Journal of Nutrition. 2006;136(1):83-87.

Harper CR, Edwards MC, Jacobson TA. Flaxseed oil supplementation does not affect plasma lipoprotein concentration or particle size in human subjects. Journal of Nutrition. 2006;136(11):2844-2848.

HealthNotes, Inc. Flaxseed. 2002. Available at: http://www.healthwell.com/Healthnotes/Supp/Flaxseed.cfm Accessed May 7, 2003.

Hemmings SJ, Song X. The effects of dietary flaxseed on the Fischer 344 rat. III. Protection against CCl(4)-induced liver injury. Cellular and Biochemical Functioning. 2005;23(6):389-398.

Iancu RI, Haliga R, Luca V, Stitt PA, Mocanu V. Modulation of the platelet function by diet supplemented with flaxseed and vitamin E in diabetic hamsters. [article in Romanian] Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi. 2006;110(4):962-967.

Jellin JM, Gregory P, Batz F, Hitchens K, et al, eds. Pharmacist's Letter/Prescriber's Letter. Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 3rd Edition. Stockton CA: Therapeutic Research Facility, 2000.

Jenkins DJ, Kendall CWC, Vidgen E, et al. Health aspects of partially defatted flaxseed, including effects on serum lipids, oxidative measures, and ex vivo androgen and progestin activity: a controlled, crossover trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1999;69:395-402.

Kaul N, Kreml R, Austria JA, et al. A comparison of fish oil, flaxseed oil and hempseed oil supplementation on selected parameters of cardiovascular health in healthy volunteers. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2008;27(1):51-58.

Khan G, Penttinen P, Cabanes A, et al. Maternal flaxseed diet during pregnancy or lactation increases female rat offspring's susceptibility to carcinogen-induced mammary tumorigenesis. Reproductive Toxicology. 2007;23(3):397-406.

Kinniry P, Amrani Y, Vachani A, et al. Dietary flaxseed supplementation ameliorates inflammation and oxidative tissue damage in experimental models of acute lung injury in mice. Journal of Nutrition. 2006;136(6):1545-1551.

Lai PK, Roy J. Antimicrobial and chemopreventive properties of herbs and spices. Current Medicinal Chemistry. 2004;11(11):1451-1460.

Lemay A, Dodin S, Kadri N, Jacques H, Forest JC. Flaxseed dietary supplement versus hormone replacement therapy in hypercholesterolemic menopausal women. Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2002;100(3):495-504.

Lewis JE, Nickell LA, Thompson LU, Szalai JP, Kiss A, Hilditch JR. A randomized controlled trial of the effect of dietary soy and flaxseed muffins on quality of life and hot flashes during menopause. Menopause. 2006;13(4):631-642.

Lucas EA, Lightfoot SA, Hammond LJ, et al. Flaxseed reduces plasma cholesterol and atherosclerotic lesion formation in ovariectomized Golden Syrian hamsters. Atherosclerosis. 2004;173(2):223-229.

Mandasescu S, Mocanu V, Dascalita AM, et al. Flaxseed supplementation in hyperlipidemic patients. Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi. 2005;109(3):502-506.

McGuffin M, Hobbs C, Upton R, Goldberg A, eds. American Herbal Product Association's Botanical Safety Handbook. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1997.

Nguyen CT, Bui BV, Sinclair AJ, Vingrys AJ. Dietary omega 3 fatty acids decrease intraocular pressure with age by increasing aqueous outflow. Investigational Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences. 2007;48(2):756-762.

Nelson TL, Stevens JR, Hickey MS. Inflammatory markers are not altered by an eight week dietary alpha-linolenic acid intervention in healthy abdominally obese adult males and females. Cytokine. 2007;38(2):101-106.

Nordstrom DC, Honkanen VE, Nasu Y, et al. Alpha-linolenic acid in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. A double-blind, placebo-controlled and randomized study: flaxseed vs. safflower seed. Rheumatology International. 1995;14(6):231-234.

Ogborn MR, Nitschmann E, Bankovic-Calic N, Weiler HA, Aukema HM. Effects of flaxseed derivatives in experimental polycystic kidney disease vary with animal gender. Lipids. 2006;41(12):1141-1149.

Oplinger ES, Oelke EA, Doll JD, Bundy LG, Schuler RT. Flax. University of Wisconsin Alternate Field Crops Manual. Last Update November 18, 1997. Available at: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/flax.html Accessed May 7, 2003.

Othman RA, Suh M, Fischer G, et al. A comparison of the effects of fish oil and flaxseed oil on cardiac allograft chronic rejection in rats. American Journal of Physiology and Heart Circulation Physiology. 2008;294(3):H1452-H1458.

Pan A, Sun J, Chen Y, et al. Effects of a flaxseed-derived lignan supplement in type 2 diabetic patients: a randomized, double-blind, cross-over trial. PLoS ONE. 2007;2(11):e1148.

Paschos GK, Magkos F, Panagiotakos DB, Votteas V, Zampelas A. Dietary supplementation with flaxseed oil lowers blood pressure in dyslipidaemic [sic] patients. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2007;61(10):1201-1206.

Patade A, Devareddy L, Lucas EA, Korlagunta K, Daggy BP, Arjmandi BH. Flaxseed reduces total and LDL cholesterol concentrations in Native American postmenopausal women. Journal of Womens Health (Larchmont). 2008;17(3):355-366.

Pellizzon MA, Billheimer JT, Bloedon LT, Szapary PO, Rader DJ. Flaxseed reduces plasma cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemic mouse models. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2007;26(1):66-75.

Phipps WR, Martini MC, Lampe JW, Slavin JL, Kurzer MS. Effect of flax seed ingestion on the menstrual cycle. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 1993;77(5):1215-1219.

Prasad K. Dietary flax seed in prevention of hypercholesterolemic atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis. 1997;132:69-76.

Prasad K. A study on regression of hypercholesterolemic atherosclerosis in rabbits by flax lignan complex. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 2007;12(4):304-313.

Prasad K, Mantha SV, Muir AD, Westcott ND. Reduction of hypercholesterolemic atherosclerosis by CDC-flaxseed with very low alpha-linolenic acid. Atherosclerosis. 1998;136:367-375.

Pruthi S, Thompson SL, Novotny PJ, et al. Pilot evaluation of flaxseed for the management of hot flashes. Journal of the Society for Integrative Oncology. 2007;5(3):106-112.

Rajesha J, Murthy KN, Kumar MK, Madhusudhan B, Ravishankar GA. Antioxidant potentials of flaxseed by in vivo model. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2006;54(11):3794-3799.

Rowland I, Faughnan M, Hoey L, Wahala K, Williamson G, Cassidy A. Bioavailability of phyto-oestrogens [sic]. British Journal of Nutrition. 2003;89(Suppl 1):S45-S58.

Sankaran D, Bankovic-Calic N, Cahill L, Yu-Chen Peng C, Ogborn MR, Aukema HM. Late Dietary Intervention Limits Benefits of Soy Protein or Flax Oil in Experimental Polycystic Kidney Disease. Nephron and Experimental Nephrology. 2007;106(4):e122-e128.

Sankaran D, Bankovic-Calic N, Peng CY, Ogborn MR, Aukema HM. Dietary flax oil during pregnancy and lactation retards disease progression in rat offspring with inherited kidney disease. Pediatric Research. 2006;60(6):729-733.

Sano T, Oda E, Yamashita T, et al. Antithrombic and anti-atherogenic effects of partially defatted flaxseed meal using a laser-induced thrombosis test in apolipoprotein E and low-density lipoprotein receptor deficient mice. Blood Coagulation and Fibrinolysis. 2003;14(8):707-712.

Schwab US, Callaway JC, Erkkila AT, Gynther J, Uusitupa MI, Jarvinen T. Effects of hempseed and flaxseed oils on the profile of serum lipids, serum total and lipoprotein lipid concentrations and haemostatic factors. European Journal of Nutrition. 2006;45(8):470-477.

Singer P, Jaeger W, Berger I, et al. Effects of dietary oleic, linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids on blood pressure, serum lipids, lipoproteins and the formation of eicosanoid precursors in patients with mild essential hypertension. Journal of Human Hypertension. 1990;4(3):227-233.

Thompson LU, Rickard SE, Cheung F, et al. Variability in anticancer lignan levels in flaxseed. Nutrition and Cancer 1997;27(1):26-30.

Thompson LU, Rickard SE, Orcheson LJ, Seidl MM. Flaxseed and its lignan and oil components reduce mammary tumor growth at a late stage of carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis. 1996;17(6):1373-1376.

Tou JC, Chen J, Thompson LU. Flaxseed and its lignan precursor, secoisolariciresinol diglycoside, affect pregnancy outcome and reproductive development in rats. Journal of Nutrition. 1998;128(11):1861-1868.

Trentin GA, Moody J, Torous DK, Thompson LU, Heddle JA. The influence of dietary flaxseed and other grains, fruits and vegetables on the frequency of spontaneous chromosomal damage in mice. Mutation Research. 2004;551(1-2):213-222.

Vandeveer C. How did flax preserve history? April 29, 2003. Available at: http://www.killerplants.com/plants-that-changed-history/20030429.asp Accessed May 7, 2003.

Velasquez MT, Bhathena SJ, Ranich T, et al. Dietary flaxseed meal reduces proteinuria and ameliorates nephropathy in an animal model of type II diabetes mellitus. Kidney International. 2003;64(6):2100-2107.

Vijaimohan K, Jainu M, Sabitha KE, Subramaniyam S, Anandhan C, Shyamala Devi CS. Beneficial effects of alpha linolenic acid rich flaxseed oil on growth performance and hepatic cholesterol metabolism in high fat diet fed rats. Life Sciences. 2006;79(5):448-454.

Ward WE, Chen J, Thompson LU. Exposure to flaxseed or its purified lignan during suckling only or continuously does not alter reproductive indices in male and female offspring. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. 2001;64(7):567-577.

Weiler HA, Kovacs H, Nitschmann E, Bankovic-Calic N, Aukema H, Ogborn M. Feeding flaxseed oil but not secoisolariciresinol diglucoside results in higher bone mass in healthy rats and rats with kidney disease. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids. 2007;76(5):269-275.

Young GS, Conquer JA, Thomas R. Effect of randomized supplementation with high dose olive, flax or fish oil on serum phospholipid fatty acid levels in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Reprod Nutr Dev. 2005;45(5):549-558.

Zhang W, Wang X, Liu Y, et al. Dietary flaxseed lignan extract lowers plasma cholesterol and glucose concentrations in hypercholesterolaemic subjects. British Journal of Nutrition. 2008;99(6):1301-1309.

Zhang W, Wang X, Liu Y, et al. Effects of dietary flaxseed lignan extract on symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Journal of Medicinal Food. 2008;11(2):207-214.

Last Revised July 18, 2008

Note: The above information is not intended to replace the advice of your physician, pharmacist, or other healthcare professional. It is not meant to indicate that the use of the product is safe, appropriate, or effective for you.

In general, herbal products are not subject to review or approval by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). They are not required to be standardized, meaning that the amounts of active ingredients or contaminants they contain may vary between brands or between different batches of the same brand. Not all of the risks, side effects, or interactions associated with the use of herbal products are known because few reliable studies of their use in humans have been done.

This information is provided for your education only. Please share this information with your healthcare provider and be sure that you talk to your doctor and pharmacist about all the prescription and non-prescription medicines you take before you begin to use any herbal product.

Back