Diabetes
Introduction
You have probably heard the saying, "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." Diabetes is a disease that affects millions of people and their families. By taking good care of yourself, you can control your diabetes and prevent the major complications that come from diabetes.
What is it?
Diabetes, also known as diabetes mellitus, is a chronic disease characterized by high glucose (sugar) levels in the blood. Your body produces a hormone called insulin to regulate the amount of sugar in the blood. If you have diabetes, your body either doesn't produce enough insulin (Type 1) or does not adequately respond to the insulin it is producing (Type 2).
There are three major types of diabetes:
- Type 1: In type 1 diabetes, the body loses its ability to produce insulin. Insulin is necessary for the body to be able to use sugar. Sugar is the basic fuel for the cells in the body, and insulin takes the sugar from the blood and helps transport it into the cells. In people with Type 1 diabetes, the immune system mistakenly attacks the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas. When this happens, beta cells in the Islets of Langerhans, which are tiny clusters of cells in the pancreas that manufacture insulin and glucagon, are attacked and destroyed by the body's own immune system in an autoimmune reaction. This is called an autoimmune response. Type 1 diabetes typically affects younger people, and symptoms may appear suddenly. This type of diabetes accounts for about 5 percent to 10 percent of all diagnosed cases of diabetes.
- Type 2: In type 2 diabetes, the body either becomes less responsive to the insulin it produces or does not produce enough insulin. Insulin helps the body use sugar, which is necessary for the cells in the body to live. Insulin takes the sugar from the blood and helps transport it into cells. The body can become resistant to insulin because of obesity, sedentary lifestyles, aging, certain drugs, or high glucose levels. Type 2 diabetes, which usually has its onset in adulthood after the age of 30, is much more common than type 1 diabetes. At least 90 percent to 95 percent of all people who have diabetes are classified as having type 2.
- Pre-diabetes: A person is said to have pre-diabetes (also known as Impaired Glucose Tolerance - IGT) when his/her fasting blood glucose level is higher than normal but not high enough to be diagnosed with type 2 diabetes. For example, it is considered normal if your fasting blood sugar level is less than 100 mg/dL. However, you?re considered to have pre-diabetes if your fasting blood sugar levels are between 100-125 mg/dL. It is estimated that 54 million Americans have pre-diabetes.
- Gestational diabetes: This form of diabetes is diagnosed in pregnant women who have never had diabetes before, but who have high blood sugar levels during pregnancy. High blood sugar levels occur in pregnancy and usually disappear after the mother gives birth. This type of diabetes occurs about 4 percent of all pregnant women - about 135,000 cases in the United States. In 40 percent of all cases, gestational diabetes leads to type 2 diabetes later in life.
Other types of diabetes include the following:
- Secondary diabetes: High blood sugar levels result from specific genetic syndromes, surgery, drugs, malnutrition, infections, and other damage to or diseases of the pancreas. This type of diabetes may account for 1 percent to 2 percent of all cases of diabetes.
What causes it?
The cause of type 1 diabetes is unclear; however, it is thought that autoimmune, genetic, and environmental factors are involved in the development of this type of diabetes. The appearance of type 1 diabetes is suspected to follow an exposure to some type of "environmental trigger" - for example, a virus. It is thought that this stimulates an immune attack against the beta cells of the pancreas in genetically predisposed people.
There are two important causes of type 2 diabetes:
- Heredity: Type 2 diabetes often runs in the family, but the onset of the illness doesn't occur until adulthood.
- Obesity: If you are overweight, your body may become less responsive to the insulin you have, resulting in type 2 diabetes.
Who has it?
Diabetes is becoming more common. About 20.8 million Americans (7 percent of the U.S. population) have diabetes, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Approximately 6.2 million of these people do not know they have the disease. In addition:
- 90-95% (19.3 million) of Americans diagnosed with diabetes have type 2 diabetes
- It's estimated that approximately 54 million Americans have pre-diabetes in addition to the 20.8 million already diagnosed with the disease.
- Type 2 diabetes affects about 20% of people 65 years and older
- African Americans, Hispanic Americans, Native Americans, Asian Americans, and Pacific Islanders are more likely to have diabetes than non-Hispanic whites.
- More and more youth are developing type 2 diabetes, the form of diabetes that up until recent years was mainly diagnosed in adults. Children who are overweight, lead sedentary lifestyles, and have a family history of type 2 diabetes are particularly at risk. The number of children with type 2 diabetes is expected to continually increase as the US population becomes increasingly overweight.
The impact of diabetes on the U.S. economy is staggering and amounted to nearly $174 billion in 2007 or one out of every 10 health care dollars spent in the U.S. Direct medical costs totaled $116 billion of that $27 billion for diabetes care, $58 billion for chronic diabetes-related complications, and $31 billion for excess prevalence of general medical conditions (i.e. doctor's visits or days in the hospital for something other than diabetes or diabetes complications). Indirect costs resulting from lost workdays, restricted activity days, death, and permanent disability due to diabetes totaled $58.2 billion. Approximately $87 billion was spent for inpatient hospital care and for nursing home care for people with diabetes. As the population ages, it is likely that these amounts will increase. Also, as the lifestyle trend of the U.S., such as obesity, continue to increase diabetes prevalence rates, the projected spending for diabetes will grow far beyond what it is today.
What are the risk factors?
Risk factors are characteristics that can predispose you to developing a condition or disease. Just because you have one or more risk factors does not mean you will get diabetes. Risk factors for type 1 diabetes are not as clearly defined as for type 2.
Type 1 risk factors include:
- Family history of diabetes
- Autoimmune disease, where the body mistakenly attacks the insulin-producing cells
- Environmental factors such as a viral infection that can stimulate an immune attack against the beta cells of the pancreas
- Obesity (Body Mass Index--BMI--greater than or equal to 30 kg/m2)
- Physical inactivity
- Age greater than 65 years
- Family history of diabetes
- Impaired glucose tolerance or impaired fasting glucose
- Being a Native American, African American, Hispanic/Latino American, Asian American, or a Pacific Islander
- Having delivered a baby weighing more than 9 pounds or having been diagnosed with gestational diabetes
- High blood pressure (greater than or equal to 140/90 mmHg in adults)
- HDL cholesterol less than or equal to 35 mg/dL and/or a triglyceride level greater than or equal to 250 mg/dL
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) - when a woman's body produces an excess of testosterone (a male hormone) which causes the ovaries to release eggs (ovulate) less frequently than normal or they don't release eggs at all. This syndrome usually causes irregular or absent menstrual cycles. Elevated insulin levels or insulin resistance often accompanies PCOS.
- Family history of diabetes (especially on the maternal side)
- Being overweight or obese
- Being a Native American, African American, Hispanic/Latino American, Asian American, or a Pacific Islander
- Pregnancy at an older age
- Previous history of gestational diabetes
What are the symptoms?
Diabetes is sometimes discovered by accident in people who have no symptoms. It is important to note that many people with Type 2 Diabetes often do not have symptoms. On the other hand, some people with diabetes have a variety of symptoms. These symptoms include:
- Type 1 Diabetes
- Frequent urination
- Unusual, excessive thirst
- Extreme hunger
- Unusual weight loss
- Extreme fatigue
- Irritability
- Type 2 Diabetes
- Any of the type 1 symptoms listed above
- Frequent infections
- Blurred vision
- Cuts/bruises that are slow to heal
- Tingling/numbness in the hands or feet
- Recurring skin, gum or bladder infections
- Heart disease
- Heart disease is the leading cause of diabetes-related deaths.
- Adults with diabetes are two to four times more likely to die from heart disease than adults without diabetes.
- Stroke
- The risk of stroke is two to four times higher in people with diabetes.
- Kidney failure
- Diabetes was the leading cause of end-stage renal disease in 2002.
- In 2002, 44,400 people in the United States with diabetes began dialysis treatment for end-stage kidney disease.
- Blindness
- Diabetes is the leading cause of new cases of blindness in adults 20 to 74 years old.
- There are 12,000 to 24,000 new cases of diabetes-associated blindness each year.
- Amputations
- More then 60 percent of lower limb amputations in the United States occurred among people with diabetes.
- In 2002, about 82,000 non-trauma related lower limb amputations were performed in people with diabetes.
- Nervous system disease
- Approximately 60 percent to 70 percent of diabetics have some type of nervous system damage, which includes decreased sensation in feet or hands, slowed digestion in the stomach, or carpal tunnel syndrome.
- Dental disease
- Almost one-third of people with diabetes have severe periodontal diseases with loss of attachment of the gums to the teeth measuring 5 millimeters or more.
How is it treated?
The treatment of diabetes depends on the kind of diabetes being treated. Select the type of diabetes you would like to see a comparison for:
Monitoring Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes
Self-testing your blood sugar level lets you know how food, exercise, and medications are affecting it. It is a good idea to keep a record of your daily readings and review the results with your health care provider.
How do I test my blood sugar level?
To test your blood sugar level, a device called a glucose meter is used. There are many different types of glucose meters available, and these can be purchased at your local pharmacy. Or, if you have prescription insurance, check with your insurance company as many insurance plans will provide a free glucose monitor for you.
To test a blood sugar level, generally, a drop of blood from a finger stick is placed on a test strip that is then placed into the meter. The meter then reads the amount of glucose (sugar) in your blood. This simple test tells you what your blood sugar level is at the time of the test. The readings you get in this manner help you manage your diabetes on a day-to-day or even an hour-to-hour basis.
Glucose meters have generally always revolved around using the finger stick methods, but many other glucose measuring products are available to monitor your blood sugar level. Today there are specialized lancing devices that prick the skin at different levels, a needle free laser device, blood glucose monitors using blood from other parts of the body (like the arm instead of fingertips), the GlucoWatch, which is worn like a watch and detects your blood glucose level through your skin, and InDuo, which combines a glucose meter and insulin injector pen, and sensors that are placed under your skin.
How often should I test my blood sugar level?
Self-tests may be done before meals, after meals, or at bedtime. Ask your health care provider how often and when you should test your blood sugar level. Self-tests are important for all individuals with diabetes but especially for persons treated with insulin to monitor for and to prevent hypoglycemia (low blood sugar). For most individuals with Type 1 diabetes and pregnant women taking insulin, self-tests are recommended three or more times daily. The optimal frequency and timing of self-tests for people with Type 2 diabetes are not known, but if you have type 2 diabetes and don't use insulin, you may need to test your blood sugar levels only once a day or as little as twice a week (depending on your current level of diabetes control). When a therapy is added or modified, diabetic patients should test more often than usual. Again, it is best to work with your doctor to determine the best glucose testing strategy for you.
What is considered a good blood sugar reading?
Ideal goals recommended for most people with diabetes are:
- Before meals: 90-130 mg/dL
- After meals: less than 180 mg/dL
- At bedtime: 100 to 140 mg/dL
Your blood sugar level goals may vary from these ideal goals. It is important to discuss this with your health care provider.
What is a hemoglobin A1C test?
The hemoglobin A1C test is a blood test that tells you how well your blood sugar level has been controlled over the past 3 months. According to the American Diabetes Association, the hemoglobin A1C goal for most people with diabetes is less then 7 percent. If your number is less then 7 percent this means that your treatment plan is effective and your diabetes is under good control. This test should be obtained at least twice a year and any other times as indicated by your health care provider.
In addition to monitoring my blood sugar levels, what else do I need to do?
If you have diabetes, it is recommended that you obtain annual foot, eye, and dental examinations by a health care provider, kidney function tests and cholesterol checks. It is also recommended that you wear comfortable shoes and that you check your feet on a daily basis. Look at your bare feet for cuts, blisters, red spots, and swelling and report any foot problems to your doctor. If you have trouble seeing your feet, you can use a mirror or ask a friend or family member for help.
Treating Type 1 Diabetes
In type 1 diabetes, the body loses its ability to produce insulin. Insulin therapy is vital to treating type 1 diabetes. The body's lack of insulin can be compensated with various types of insulin that are injected on a daily basis. There are many types of insulin. The differences between insulin are based on the time it takes for the insulin to begin working in the body and how long the insulin will work in your body. To learn more about the various types of insulin, click on the "Insulins" link under "Drug Classes Used to Treat Diabetes." Newer types of insulins are available that more closely mimic the body's own insulin production and cause fewer side effects.
If you have type 1 diabetes, you need to monitor your blood glucose (sugar) levels several times a day and have daily injections of insulin using a syringe, pen or pump, combined with a strict diet, to help maintain constant glucose levels in the blood. You also need to watch the timing of meals and have glucose-rich snacks on hand to treat low blood sugar. Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) can be a dangerous complication of insulin treatment, and it must be treated promptly.
Hypoglycemia is a condition that occurs when your blood sugar gets too low. Hypoglycemia can develop when you delay or skip a meal, eat too little food at a meal, get more exercise than usual, or if you take too much insulin. Symptoms of hypoglycemia include:
- Dizziness
- Sweating
- Rapid heartbeat
- Headache
- Blurred vision
- Inability to think or concentrate
- Drowsiness
- Numbness and tingling around lips
- Being hungry
Usually you can self-treat hypoglycemia relatively quickly. If you experience any of the above symptoms of hypoglycemia seek one of the following glucose sources right away and check your blood sugar level:
- 1 cup (8 oz.) of orange juice
- 1/3 cup of grape juice
- 1 cup (8 oz.) of milk
- 5-6 pieces of hard candy
- 2 tablespoons of raisins
- 1-2 teaspoonfuls of honey
When traditional diet and insulin injection measures cannot adequately control your blood sugar levels, you may choose to use an insulin pump. This is a device that delivers a constant supply of insulin through a needle placed in the skin of the abdomen.
Symlin (pramlintide acetate) injection has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of type 1 diabetes. It is the pioneer drug in a new class of medications used to treat diabetes called amylin mimetics. Structurally similar to the human hormone amylin, Symlin is used in addition to insulin to help control blood sugar levels. By slowing down the movement of food through the stomach, sugar absorption into the blood is delayed, thus allowing for better blood glucose control. For type 1 and type 2 diabetes patients, the use of Symlin is only recommended in insulin treated patients who need additional blood sugar control. Symlin is usually injected before each major meal (greater than or equal to 250 calories or 30 grams of carbohydrates) and lasts up to 3 hours after eating.
Exubera is a new form of insulin that is inhaled rather than injected. The inhaled insulin device is similar to that of an asthma inhaler. It delivers a dose of insulin in a dry powder through the mouth directly to the lungs, where the insulin easily enters the bloodstream. Results of the trials of Exubera indicated similar efficacy in blood glucose control when comparing insulin injections versus inhaled insulin. Unfortunately, in October 2007, Pfizer announced that Exubera will no longer be manufactured. This was due to the minimal usage of the drug and that fact that there are many other available insulin products. It was officially unavailable as of January 16, 2008.
Finding an insulin regimen for controlling diabetes should be tailored specifically for each individual. Most patients with type 1 diabetes will require multiple daily doses of insulin or an insulin pump. It is important to closely monitor your blood sugars and work with your doctor to find the best treatment regimen for you.
Treating Type 2 Diabetes
The first treatment for type 2 diabetes is often exercise and meal planning for blood sugar control and weight loss. Sometimes these measures may not be sufficient to bring blood sugar levels back to normal range. The next step is usually taking an oral medication to help decrease your insulin requirements or stimulate your body to produce more insulin. Obese or overweight patients are typically started on medications known as biguanides (for example, metformin), while non-overweight patients are oftentimes started on medications known as sulfonylureas (for example, glyburide, glipizide, or glimepiride). If blood sugar levels can't be controlled with one medication, your doctor may choose to use a sulfonylurea and biguanide in combination or add other medications such as a thiazolidinedione (for example, Actos or Avandia), an alpha-glucosidase inhibitor (for example, Precose or Glyset), or a meglitinide (for example, Starlix or Prandin). Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors and thiazolidinediones require more frequent monitoring from your doctor because of their side effects. Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors may cause gastrointestinal distress (gas, bloating, and diarrhea), and thiazolidinediones have been associated with liver problems and more recently possible cardiovascular complications.
Many individuals with type 2 diabetes will in time require more than one medication to control their blood sugar levels. As mentioned above, a commonly used combination consists of a sulfonylurea and a biguanide. There are products on the market that combine both medications into a single tablet, enabling you to take only one tablet while getting the effects from both medications. These single tablet combinations are available for a sulfonylurea/biguanide and a biguanide/thiazolidineodione. If diabetes control cannot be maintained on oral medications, then insulin therapy may be started either alone or in combination with oral therapy. Medication works best when used in combination with appropriate meal planning and exercise. There is no "best" pill to treat type 2 diabetes. You may need to try a combination of medications or medication plus insulin to effectively control your blood sugar.
The newest medications that have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of diabetes include Symlin, Byetta, and Exubera.
Symlin (pramlintide acetate) injection has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. It is the pioneer drug in a new class of medications used to treat diabetes called amylin-mimetics. Structurally similar to the human hormone amylin, Symlin is used in addition to insulin to help control blood sugar levels. By slowing down the movement of food through the stomach, sugar absorption into the blood is delayed, thus allowing for better blood glucose control. For type 1 and type 2 diabetes patients, the use of Symlin is only recommended in insulin treated patients who need additional blood sugar control. Symlin can be used along with oral diabetes medications if needed. Symlin is usually injected before each major meal (greater than or equal to 250 calories or 30 grams of carbohydrates) and lasts up to 3 hours after eating.
Byetta (exenatide) injection is a medication used to control blood sugar levels in persons with type 2 diabetic. Byetta is the first in a new class of drugs called incretin mimetics. Byetta enhances glucose dependant insulin secretion from the beta cells in the pancreas, thus mimicking the body's natural response to glucose. As a result, more insulin is available in the body to help control blood sugar levels, especially after meals. Byetta is usually injected twice a day one hour before the morning and evening meal and should be used along with an oral diabetes medication to get the best results.
Exubera is a new form of insulin that is inhaled rather than injected. The inhaled insulin device is similar to that of an asthma inhaler. It delivers a dose of insulin in a dry powder through the mouth directly to the lungs, where the insulin easily enters the bloodstream. Results of the trials of Exubera indicated similar efficacy in blood glucose control when comparing insulin injections versus inhaled insulin. Unfortunately, in October 2007, Pfizer announced that Exubera will no longer be manufactured. This was due to the minimal usage of the drug and that fact that there are many other available insulin products. It was officially unavailable as of January 16, 2008.
Finding a medication regimen for controlling diabetes should be tailored specifically for each individual. Some individuals may achieve adequate blood sugar control from diet and exercise while others may require one, two or even three oral medications to control blood sugars, while still others may require multiple daily doses of insulin. It is important to closely monitor your blood sugars and work with your doctor to find the best treatment regimen for you.
Helping Yourself
If you have diabetes, you can help control your blood sugar by making some lifestyle changes, including adding exercise to your daily regimen and watching your diet.
Exercise can:
- decrease insulin resistance in Type 2 diabetics
- improve circulation
- help achieve and maintain an ideal body weight
Dietary management of carbohydrates, which are a type of sugar, and animal fats helps to:
- control the amount of sugar in the blood
- assist in weight control
To eat healthier:
- Eat a variety of fruits and vegetables
- Eat a variety of grain products, including whole grains
- Include fat-free and low-fat milk products, fish, beans, skinless poultry and lean meats
- Choose fats with 2 grams or less of saturated fat per serving
- Limit your intake of foods high in calories or low in nutrition, including high-sugar foods like soft drinks and candy
- Limit foods high in saturated fat
- Limit your salt intake to less than 6 grams a day
- Limit your alcohol consumption
- Know the serving sizes or portion sizes of the foods that you eat
Proper foot care is also very important for diabetes management. You can help yourself by:
- Checking your feet daily. Look for:
- Skin color changes
- Pain in legs
- Ingrown or fungal toenails
- Corns or calluses
- Swelling of foot or ankle
- Open sores that are slow to heal
- Dry cracks in the skin
- Cutting toenails regularly
- Washing your feet daily
- Choosing the right shoes (includes measuring the foot length and width)
- Avoiding shoes that put excess pressure on your feet (high heels, sandals, pointed-toe shoes), avoid walking barefoot, avoid wearing socks with seams, and avoid wearing nylon stockings if you're being treated for an infection.
In all types of diabetes, it is necessary to monitor blood sugar frequently. You may do this at home with a blood glucose monitor. Your doctor may use the glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) test, which will help him/her determine what your average blood sugar level has been over a period of several months. Having this test can help you reduce the risk of serious, long-term complications.
Controlling cholesterol can help lower your chance of developing long term damage to your heart. It is important to know your LDL (low density lipoprotein-also known as "bad cholesterol") cholesterol, HDL (high density lipoprotein - also known as "good cholesterol") cholesterol, and triglyceride levels. Controlling cholesterol can help lower your chance of developing long term damage to your heart.
Current guidelines recommend maintaining cholesterol levels to:
- LDL less then 100 mg/dL, or even lower as indicated by your doctor
- Triglycerides less than 150 mg/dL
- HDL greater than 40 mg/dL
It is important to eat a low-saturated fat, low-cholesterol diet to keep your cholesterol within healthy limits.
Controlling blood pressure can also lower your chance of developing long term side effects. If you have diabetes, your blood pressure should be lower than 130/80 mmHg (millimeters of mercury) to reduce your risk.
Stop smoking. Smoking cigarettes and other tobacco products raises the risk of heart attack and stroke. Smoking also increases the risk of nerve damage, kidney disease, cancer, and lung disease.
Yearly exams. It is important to follow up with your provider and have yearly physicals, eye exams, foot exams, dental exams, and vaccinations.
Testing for diabetes may be appropriate for members of the immediate family (mother, father, sister, brother or children) of people with diabetes. Testing is especially important for any family member who has one or more risk factors.
What is on the horizon?
In the works is a buccal (in the cheek) insulin product called Oralgen?. The insulin is sprayed into the mouth and primarily absorbed through the inner cheek walls. This could significantly improve patient compliance with insulin and Generex (the company that makes the product) has said that it is hoping it will be approved in the U.S. by late 2008 or 2009. Another alternative to injectable insulin may be transdermal insulin. One company has patented a technology that uses microencapsulation, which involves capturing the drug molecules within a thin layer of phosphorylated vitamin E to create a nanosphere. This nanosphere then acts as a carrier that uses existing natural transport mechanisms to "carry" drugs across the skin without disrupting the skin's surface. Another way of delivery involves using ultrasound to enlarge the pores in the skin so that the large insulin molecules contained in a transdermal patch can pass through to the bloodstream. One possible concern with this method would be that it might cause skin breakdown. These new methods still need to be studied further and time will tell if they will be of any benefit.
Also on the horizon are major advances in genetic research. Several approaches to "cure" diabetes are being pursued. These include islet cell transplantation (islet cells produce insulin), artificial pancreas development, and genetic manipulation of fat or muscle cells by inserting genes in them that enable them to make insulin. More and more people with diabetes are able to live without insulin after receiving pancreatic islet-cell transplants. Transplantation of an entire pancreas has had some success, but there are several problems, not the least of which is the severe shortage of donors. Because islet cells, consisting of less than 10 percent of the pancreas, are involved in insulin production, they have become a major focus of research with innovations now taking place on several fronts. Although each of these research areas still has many challenges, continual progress is being made.
A new surgical procedure, called Laparoscopic Banding, has been shown to benefit people with diabetes. A study found that 66% of individuals with diabetes were able to stop taking their diabetes medications at 1 year after having lap band surgery, 70.6% after 18 months and 80% after 2 years. There was a greater chance that diabetes could be resolved in persons that had been diagnosed within the last 5 years (83%) compared to those diagnosed more than 5 years ago (33%). The procedure is reserved for obese individuals who have tried and failed to lose weight by diet and exercise alone. A small band is placed around the upper part of the stomach, which creates a "smaller" stomach above where the band was placed. This area will now act as the "new stomach" and the food contents are slowly broken down through the lap band which makes the person feel full much faster. The benefits over gastric bypass surgery (another weight loss procedure where the stomach is completely bypassed) are that the lap band surgery only requires a short hospital stay (<48 hours), is able to be easily adjusted, and is fully reversible if complications arise.
In addition, a recent study indicates that there is a link between type 1 diabetes mellitus and the development of osteoporosis. This finding is due the fact that adult women with type 1 diabetes have relatively decreased bone mass/integrity, increased fracture risk, and delayed fracture healing compared with healthy women who do not have diabetes. The finding only pertains to females with type 1 diabetes, not type 2. While the findings of this study indicate a trend between osteoporosis and diabetes mellitus, they are not conclusive. Additional studies are needed to confirm these results.
Scientists are now injecting GCN5 proteins in mice, which they believe triggers liver cells to release glucose into the bloodstream. They introduced GCN5 into live mice and found that it decreased blood glucose levels, even though mice hadn't been given food for 16 hours, a situation that would normally cause their liver cells to release glucose into the bloodstream. The results show that GCN5 protein is sufficient enough to control the sugar balance in mice. The question remains, could it be effective in humans? Additional studies will be conducted to confirm this finding.
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Diabetes Health Condition Last Updated: April 2008
Note: The above information is intended to supplement, not substitute for, the expertise and judgment of your physician, pharmacist, or other healthcare professional. It is not intended to diagnose a health condition, but it can be used as a guide to help you decide if you should seek professional treatment or to help you learn more about your condition once it has been diagnosed.
- Type 1 Diabetes